The mollusc phylum is the second largest in the animal world, behind the arthropod phylum. It is estimated that there may be around 100,000 living species of molluscs and 70,000 fossil species have been described. Molluscs are invertebrate animals with a soft body protected by a calcareous shell. Their respiration is mostly gill, but there are also species of molluscs with lung or cutaneous respiration. They inhabit terrestrial and aquatic areas (marine and freshwater) and some species live in extreme conditions, such as those belonging to the classes of Neomeniomorphs or Chaetodermomorphs, which live in deep waters. They present a surprising morphological diversity, but despite the variety of their shapes, sizes, life cycles and environments in which they are found, all groups of molluscs present a basic body organization in which the cephalo-visceral region and the foot are distinguished. The cephalic region contains an organ with a digestive function exclusive to molluscs, the radula. It is a ribbon of curved chitin teeth that acts as a scraping organ during feeding. When removing the radula, the teeth slide over the surface of the food and, when retracting it inward, they dig into the food and carry it towards the mouth. The visceral mass is protected by the shell, which is secreted by a specific area of the epidermis called the mantle. It is in the mantle where the respiratory and sensory organs are located, as well as the outputs of the excretory, reproductive and digestive systems. The shell usually protects the body of the animal, but it can also be found inside the body or even have disappeared, as in octopuses and sea slugs. The foot is the muscular organ that can be used for locomotion or be reduced and serve for anchoring to the substrate of the organism, as in the case of bivalves. The Mollusc phylum is divided into 8 natural groups: Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Neomeniomorpha, Chaetodermomorpha, Polyplacophora, Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda and Monoplacophora: Bivalves or Pelecypods: There are more than 8,000 described species of bivalves, which make up the second largest group of molluscs. They owe their name to the fact that their shell is made up of 2 articulated valves that protect the animal. They are aquatic and mainly marine. This animals are characterized because their body is laterally compressed and their foot is reduced, since it is not used for locomotion, but is used to dig and hold onto the substrate. Bivalves include both sessile and burrowing species, as well as propulsion swimmers, such as scallops, which propel themselves through the water by jet propulsion: the rapid closing of the valves expels water from the mantle cavity and the animal "swims" in the opposite direction. Oysters, clams, mussels and razor clams belong to this group. The oldest part of the shell, the umbo, can be recognized as a large hump at the anterior end of the dorsal side of each shell. Most marine bivalves go through a trochophore stage before developing into a free-swimming veliger larva. This type of larva looks like a miniature bivalve with a row of cilia along the edge of the mantle. Freshwater species lack these stages. Instead, some go through a larval stage known as the glodychium. Instead of swimming freely, a glodychium attaches to fish or other objects that will not be swept away by the current. Gastropods: They are the largest group of molluscs. Currently there are 60,000 living species and 15,000 fossil species described, but it is estimated that there may be close to 150,000 living species. They are marine and terrestrial (it is the only type of mollusc that has managed to live outside of water). These molluscs are characterized by having an elongated body with a large foot at its base that, in general, serves for locomotion by dragging these animals, although in some of them it is modified for swimming or digging. They have a single spiral-shaped shell into which the animal's body can enter. In some species, the shell has been reduced and internalized and others have directly lost this shell throughout evolution, as is the case with slugs. This group includes snails, sea hares, sea and land slugs, and limpets. Neomeniomorphs and Chaetodermomorphs: Currently there are 390 described species of both groups, but it is possible that many more exist. They are the most unknown groups of molluscs, due to their small size (some measuring only 2 mm) and their usual habitat, as most live in deep ocean waters buried in the sand. These molluscs are characterized by the lack of a shell. Polyplacophorans: Group of exclusively marine molluscs that has about 1,000 described species. They are characterized by having a shell made up of 8 plates articulated with each other, which gives them a certain capacity for body articulation. In these animals, the mantle cavity where the gills are located consists of a closed channel that runs longitudinally through the body and communicates with the outside through two anterior orifices (where water enters the cavity) and two posterior ones (where it exits). In this way, the water currents necessary for breathing circulate. Cephalopods: It is the group of which the most fossil species are known (about 7,500), while only around 600 survive. These animals are characterized because their body has elongated in a dorsoventral direction. The most current species have a reduced shell (such as cuttlefish and squid) or no shell at all (such as octopuses). Only nautiluses have a clearly developed shell. They usually live in areas far from the coast. In cephalopod animals, the mantle is intensely muscular and its contractions allow jets of water that have previously entered the mantle cavity to be expelled, allowing efficient swimming that enables them to be active predators or to escape attacks from other predators. Depending on the species, they have a different number of gills, with some specimens having evolved to completely reduce their gills, so that they breathe through the surface of the body. Scaphopods: They are exclusively marine and can inhabit sandy bottoms at great depths. Currently there are more than 800 species described and they are characterized by having a shell that looks like a tusk. They are located on the seabed with their heads downwards and with their feet they dig into the sediment, from where they obtain food. They are placed with the widest part of the shell facing the sediment, while the narrower part has a hole that allows water to enter and leave the mantle cavity, along with waste material. Thanks to this current of water, gas exchange occurs through the epidermis, since they lack gills, as well as a heart and vessels for circulation, which is carried out through simple hemolymph sinuses. Monoplacophorans: This class has the smallest number of living species described, since only 30 have been discovered. These small marine molluscs have existed since the Cambrian and are currently only represented by 2 genera, Vema and Neopilina. The current specimens found have been located in abyssal trenches, between 2,000 and 7,000 meters deep, in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. They are symmetrical organisms and have a unique shield-shaped shell below which there is a serial repetition of morphological structures (gills, nephridia, atria, retractor muscles...) along the body. We hope that you found this information as interesting as we did. If you want to continue learning you can visit our catalogue, where you will find fossil specimens of cephalopod, gastropod and bivalve molluscs. With respect and enthusiasm, we share with you our great passion, always offering the best quality, to help you to complete your collection. https://www.toptrilos.com/moluscos Sources: Animal Diversity Web - https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Mollusca/classification/#Mollusca CSIC - https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/100133/1/C_Grande_Moluscos_Cap21.pdf Images: https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science-2.0/section/9.7/primary/lesson/mollusks-ms-ls/ https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2162 https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bivalvia/ Own elaboration https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Phylogeny-and-systematics-of-Caudofoveata-Mikkelsen/f4aad894ecb6e3ef72a8923405d8775d5f36e1eb https://themarinedetective.com/category/marine-invertebrates/chitons/ https://www.ecoticias.com/naturaleza/77536_angel-guerra-csic-unico-espanol-estudio-revela-especie-calamar-gigante-mundo https://litoraldegranada.ugr.es/el-litoral/el-litoral-sumergido/fauna/moluscos/escafopodos/ https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Representatives-of-monoplacophorans-and-polyplacophorans-from-below-2000-m-A-dorsal_fig1_228488179

Scyphocrinites elegans (Zenker, 1833) is a gender of crinoids that lived from the late Silurian to early Devonian (430-415 million years ago). Its fossils have been found in Asia, North America, Europe, and Africa. Instead of being rooted in the ground like most crinoids, this gender differs in that it had a lobolith, that is, a floating sphere, that kept it afloat in the water. Unlike other crinoids, Scyphocrinites elegans hung upside down at the surface. Toptrilos has had the opportunity to visit one of the quarries where these magnificent fossils are extracted. While they are impressive on their own, knowing the extraction process makes them even more valuable. In the vicinity of the town of Erfoud (Morocco), prospectors carry out an extremely dangerous extraction process to reach these fossils. The stratum is 5 meters below the surface and prospectors dig holes by hand, without machinery or shoring. The orography of the land makes it impossible to use excavators. The workers told us that if they are lucky and there is a good stratum at the end of the well, fragments between 5 and 15 cm thick can be recovered and brought to the surface to be recomposed later in the workshop. In the following images, you can see the quarry area and the descent towards the extraction wells. Once removed, the process of cleaning the crinoids begins. For this, precision tools are used, such as pneumatic hammers, and chemical products: caustic potash and acetic acid. The following series of photographs shows the process, step by step: Several days of work, expert hands and a lot of expertise are needed to put the pieces back together so that the result is as spectacular as that of the plates that appear below. Scyphocrinites elegans crinoid plates available in our shop You can see all our specimens of Scyphocrinites elegans: https://en.toptrilos.com/equinodermos

Ammonites inhabited our oceans for 440 million years, from the Devonian to the end of the Cretaceous period (66 million years ago). They are very varied and abundant cephalopod molluscs. Cephalopod animals are characterized by having tentacles on their heads –hence their scientific name, which literally means "head with feet"–, like the current octopuses or squids. Ammonites had a soft part and a hard part, their shell. This was made of aragonite and was divided into 2 parts: the Phragmocone, where the empty chambers of the ammonite are located, and the Body Chamber, where the soft part of the ammonite was housed, that is, the organs and the animal itself. However, the Body Chamber was not as mineralized as the Phragmocone. This is the reason why it rarely fossilized. Although we currently find only the shells of ammonites, their approximate appearance was as follows: Source: https://www.ngenespanol.com/animales/descubren-amonite-gigante-de-tamano-humano/ Ammonites regulated their flotage thanks to an organ called siphon, the only one located inside the Phragmocone, which injected or extracted water and gas from its shell to ascend or descend. This was very useful, because the ammonites lived in the depths during the day and rose to the surface at night. Currently, we know that they lived both near the coast and in open oceans, at a depth of up to 500m. Regarding his diet, it is not yet known exactly. However, a finding in 2011 revealed that it could be composed of plankton. We leave you at the end of this entry a file with this study, carried out by researchers from France and the United States. It is also known that their main predators were mosasaurs, which could have caused evolutionary pressure on some species of ammonites, which evolved into larger forms. This is what happened with the giant fossil ammonites of the species P. seppenradensis, whose impressive shells could measure 1.8 meters in diameter (three times the average size) and which evolved from a smaller species: Parapuzosia leptophylla. "In a hostile environment surrounded by marine reptiles that reached tens of meters in length, the smallest ammonites were easy prey for mosasaurs that could easily gobble them up. For this reason, after tens of generations and thousands of years, the specimens of smaller ammonites became scarcer and they died eaten, while the larger ones were more difficult to swallow and therefore more often survived encounters with their predators". Source: https://www.ngenespanol.com/animales/descubren-amonite-gigante-de-tamano-humano/ As a curiosity: there are ammonites that have fossilized thanks to the pyritization process or have fossilized in opal due to the sediment in the area. The result is these fossils with fascinating colors: On the left: Pyritized Pleuroceras spinatum ammonite (Toptrilos Catalogue) On the right: Opalized Cleoniceras besairei ammonite (Toptrilos Catalogue) After more than 400 million years inhabiting our oceans, ammonites disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous. The effects of the intense volcanic activity of this period, together with the impact of the asteroid in Yucatan, caused an acidification of the waters of the oceans. Ammonite hatchlings failed to survive, as the acidic water destroyed their fragile calcium carbonate protoshells, and those of the adults were also severely damaged. We hope that this information has been as fascinating to you as it was to us. If you want to continue learning and see specimens of ammonites, you can visit our catalogue. With respect and enthusiasm, we share with you our great passion, always offering the best quality, 100% natural, without restorations. https://en.toptrilos.com/moluscos

The word Dinosaur was created by Richard Owen, biologist and founder of the London Natural Science Museum, in 1841. Dinos means Terrible and Saurio means Lizard. Dinosaurs are vertebrate animals, they have a backbone or spinal column made up of vertebrae, and they belong to the group of reptiles. Reptiles were the first animals that stopped depending on an aquatic environment. Amphibians, for example, still need to return to the water to lay their eggs. Unlike modern reptiles, the legs of dinosaurs were located under their hips, which helped them move with great agility. Later, this more evolved pelvis diversified into saurischians and ornithischians. This made the saurischians even more agile and thus began a race between predator and prey. As a curiosity, note that the feathers appeared with the dinosaurs and that the birds are their last descendants. The expansion of the dinosaurs began in the middle of the Triassic period, about 200 million years ago. In the following period, the Jurassic, there was a great explosion of species diversity and its success lasted until the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago, when a series of cataclysms led to its disappearance. WHY DID THEY DISAPPEAR? Although it is difficult to speak with certainty about exactly what happened, it is believed that the trigger could have been the fall of a large asteroid in the Yucatan Peninsula, as evidenced by the high levels of iridium (very common metal in asteroids) that have been found in the strata of the time. However, the impact did not immediately end the life of the dinosaurs, in fact it is believed that what caused the asteroid was the beginning of an apocalyptic era that could have lasted about 10 million years. The great impact threw large amounts of dust into the atmosphere, which caused the formation of dense clouds that gradually covered the sky. As the sun did not pass, the plants could not carry out photosynthesis, so the herbivores were left without food and, consequently, the carnivores. 70% of the species that inhabited the Earth disappeared. WHAT IS NOT A DINOSAUR? With the dinosaurs lived different marine and flying reptiles that tend to be confused, but that were not dinosaurs. For example, it would be natural to think that Dimetrodon was a dinosaur, but the truth is that it did not have the characteristic of dinosaurs that we have previously pointed out: Dimetrodon's legs are positioned on both sides of its body, not below its hips. In fact, this animal was not even related to the dinosaurs. Neither were the Pteriosaurs dinosaurs, which sailed through the skies. Although in this case, they were close relatives of the dinosaurs. The Mesozoic seas teemed with species of Mosasaurs, Plesiosaurs, and Ichthyosaurs, all of them aquatic reptiles, but not dinosaurs. With this information we want to help you solve some of the most frequent confusions, but even if these animals were not dinosaurs, they are no less amazing! If you want to immerse yourself in the past and continue learning, do not hesitate to visit our Dinosaur collection. There you will find authentic specimens of dinosaur teeth and vertebrae. Each piece, 100% natural, without restorations, is duly documented and classified. https://en.toptrilos.com/dinosaurios

To talk about trilobites, we must go back to the Paleozoic era. These are arthropods that inhabited the seas specifically from the early Cambrian to the late Permian, that is, from 521 million years ago to 252 million years ago. Their name (from the latin 'Three lobes') is due to the 3 segments in which they were divided longitudinally: a central lobe called the Axial Lobe that was flanked on both sides by the Right Pleural Lobe and the Left Pleural Lobe, as can be seen in the following image: As we can see in the image, the trilobites were also divided transversely into 3 sections, called Cephalon (or head), Thorax and Pygidium. Trilobites had legs, antennae, and other fine structures that were more difficult to fossilize and are therefore rarely preserved today. However, the appearance of the trilobites was similar to the following: One of the most outstanding aspects of trilobites is the composition of their exoskeleton, made up of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate in the form of calcite. This characteristic has allowed them to fossilize very easily, since trilobites were naturally made up of 'rock'. Thanks to this and to the fact that they inhabited the earth for practically 300 million years, they are currently one of the most widely known fossil organisms. Its fossil remains can be found on all continents in the petrified sediments of those oceans. As a curiosity, note that trilobites in order to grow had to change their armor, due to its great rigidity. Currently, fossilized molts are preserved, as well as trilobites that died in the molting process. After surviving 2 extinctions that caused a drastic decline in many trilobite families, they finally disappeared in the largest extinction in Earth's history, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, in which 90% of marine species and the 70% of terrestrials species died. Studies explain that when the ecosystems of the seabed collapsed, the trilobites were left without food. This, added to the acidification of the ocean floor, prevented them from correctly forming their calcite exoskeletons. We invite you to visit our Trilobite collection to learn more about these fascinating specimens and their several species. Each piece is properly documented, classified and can be shipped anywhere in the world. www.toptrilos.com/trilobites If you want to see faithful illustrations of what the seas were like in the Paleozoic era, I invite you to see the work of our friends at Mighty Fossils (www.mightyfossils.com)